"Manuel de Codage"

The hieroglyphic writing is a purely pictorial writing consisting of pictures of things. From 3000 years of Pharaonic culture many thousands of drawings are known, many of which often differ from each other in only the smallest detail. In hieroglyphic texts, these drawings are not only simply arranged in sequential order, but also grouped on top of and next to each other. This rather complicates matters trying to register and reproduce hieroglyphic texts using a computer.

When the first computers were introduced in Egyptology in the late 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, the graphical capacity of the machines was still in its infancy. Early attempts to register the hieroglyphic pictorial writing on computer therefore chose an encoding system to do this, using alphanumeric codes to represent or replace the graphics. To prevent many people from reinventing the wheel, during the first "Table Ronde Informatique et Egyptologie" in 1984 a committee was charged with the task to develop a uniform system for the encoding of hieroglyphic texts on computer. The resulting Manual for the Encoding of Hieroglyphic Texts for Computer-input (Jan Buurman, Nicolas Grimal, Jochen Hallof, Michael Hainsworth and Dirk van der Plas, Informatique et Egyptologie 2, Paris 1988), simply called Manuel de Codage, presents an easy to use and intuitive way of encoding hieroglyphic writing as well as the abbreviated hieroglyphic transcription (transliteration). The encoding system of the Manuel de Codage has since been adopted by international Egyptology as the official common standard for registering hieroglyphic texts on computer.

Hieroglyphic transcription is mostly used by Egyptologists as a transliteration of the hieroglyphic writing into 'latin' writing, using characters from our own latin alphabet differentiated by diacritical points for sounds unknown to modern western languages. The use of these characters with diacritical marks proved a problem to early computers. Therefore the Manuel de Codage first of all offers a way of translating Egyptian transliteration to the normal computer keyboard, using the easily accessible range of key-values from "a" to "z" and "A" to "Z" without extended characters.

According to the Manuel de Codage, the Egyptian "alphabet" is transcribed to computer in the following way:

Thus, the hieroglyphic transcription is written "anx", as "wDA", as "Dd", as "aHa", as "STyt" and as "Smsw".

An Egyptian transliteration font based on this encoding is available in TrueType format from the CCER FTP-Corner.

How this transcription system is used as a basis for the phonetic encoding of hieroglyphs is described in the following paragraph.

Being graphic images and numbering more than 5000 (when all periods are taken into account), hieroglyphs are rather difficult to process on a computer. They simply don't fit on the standard type of keyboard, nor do they fit in a single character set. To be able to process them using a computer, it is therefore best to refer to them using labels (i.e. synonyms). Such labels can be a numerical codes referring to the position of a sign within a character set, or even strings or names. The encoding system of the Manuel de Codage offers two ways of recording the hieroglyphic signs: by means of the so-called Gardiner sign list numbers and by the known phonetic values of the signs. Moreover, the encoding system of also offers ways for recording the layout of a hieroglyphic text, i.e. the positioning of the hieroglyphs relative to each other, text anomalies, shading (damaged parts), cartouches, hwt-enclosures, Serekhs, and more.

The first way of encoding hieroglyphic signs is based on an Egyptological standard that was presented in 1927 by A.H. Gardiner in his Egyptian Grammar. This book includes an elaborate list of more than 800 hieroglyphic signs most commonly found in Middle Egyptian texts, subdivided into convenient categories like "Mammals", "Birds", "Trees and Plants", etcetera. Each category is labelled by a letter of the alphabet:

	A	Man and his occupations
	B	Woman and her occupations
	C	Anthropomorphic Deities
	D	Parts of the Human Body
	E	Mammals
	F	Parts of Mammals
	G	Birds
	H	Parts of Birds
	I	Amphibious Animals, Reptiles, etc.
	K	Fishes and Parts of Fishestions
	L	Invertebrata and Lesser Animals
	M	Trees and Plants
	N	Sky, Earth, Water
	O	Buildings and Parts of Buildings
	P	Ships and Parts of Ships
	Q	Domestic and Funerary Furniture
	R	Temple Furniture and Sacret Emblems
	S	Crowns, Dress, Staves, etc.
	T	Warfare, Hunting, Butchery
	U	Agriculture, Crafts and Professions
	V	Rope, Fibre, Baskets, Bags, etc.
	W	Vessels of Stone and Earthenware
	X	Loaves and Cakes
	Y	Writing, Games, Music
	Z	Strokes, Geometrical Figures, etc.
	Aa	Unclassified

Within each category, the signs are numbered sequentially. For instance, the category P contains 11 signs that are numbered in the following way:

	P1
	P2
	P3
	P4
	P5
	P6
	P7
	P8
	P9
	P10
	P11

The Gardiner sign list has since long become a standard in Egyptology, which makes it especially suited to serve as a basis for the computer-encoding of hieroglyphs. To make Egyptologists feel as comfortable as possible, the encoding system of the Manuel de Codage has therefore adapted the Gardiner sign list numbers as the most important way of labelling hieroglyphs.

This means that is simply encoded as A6, as M20 and as Y1.

Because the Gardiner list only covers the most common signs found in Middle Egyptian Texts, about 800 signs, the original edition of the Manuel de Codage also included a preliminary list of some additional 4000 signs from all other periods of the hieroglyphic writing. The definitive list of more than 4700 signs was published in the book Hieroglyphica (Jochen Hallof, Nicolas Grimal, Dirk van der Plas, PIREI 1, Utrecht/Paris 1993).

The second way of encoding hieroglyphic signs offered by the Manuel de Codage is by the signs' phonetic values. Though in the hieroglyphic writing many signs can have many different phonetic values (depending on the reading of the words they appear in), and many signs can have the same phonetic value, for computer purposes only a limited number of them can be used. For instance, it is not possible to use the phonetic value di as reference to both and . The computer wouldn't know how to distinguish between the two. Consequently, a certain phonetic value can only point to one sign. According to the Manuel de Codage, di only refers to X8.

The other way around, however, single signs can well have more than one phonetic value. For instance, X8 can be referred to by both di and rdi, that is, provided rdi doesn't point to any other sign.

Since most people experienced in reading hieroglyphic texts will know many signs by their phonetic use in Egyptian, using mostly phonetic values instead of sign list numbers will considerably facilitate the process of encoding. After all, i ii m Htp is a far more readable code for than M1 M18 G17 R4.

At the same time one has to bear in mind that not all signs can be encoded using phonetic values. Though a sign like can be encoded either L1 or xpr, a sign like has no phonetic value and can only be encoded A1. A list of hieroglyphic signs and their possible phonetic values can be found in Appendix B, while appendix C provides a list the other way around.

Summarizing, hieroglyphic signs can be encoded either by their Gardiner sign list number or by a phonetic value. A single sign may carry various phonetic values, as long as each phonetic value only points to one sign.

Hieroglyphic text basically consists of rows of signs arranged in horizontal lines or vertical columns. Within a row the signs are placed individually or grouped, upper having precedence over lower. The encoding system treats hieroglyphic text no different from the way the Ancient Egyptians and modern Egyptologists regarded their reading. So, is encoded in the order , just like it is read. However, apart from listing the signs by their sign list number or phonetic value in the order they appear, additional codes are needed to note their positioning relative to each other.

The following codes are basic for the arrangement of single signs and groups of signs:

-	hieroglyphic sign separator	i-ii-m-Htp
:	subordination of signs	Y1:Z2
*	juxtaposition within a group	p*t:pt
( )	cluster positioning within a group	p*(t:Z4):pt

To be continued...

The following is a temporary continuation of the text extracted from the Glyph for Windows manual:

Hieroglyphic groups like , and where signs are placed next to and on top of each other can be constructed using the codes ":" (subdivision) and "*" (juxtaposition).

The code ":" is used to place one sign (or sign group) over another. is achieved by the simple code x:r (or Aa1:D21). More signs can be vertically placed within a group by adding more ":"-statements; n:t:f gives .

The code "*" is used to put two (or more) signs next to each other in a group. is achieved by p*t:pt, while should be encoded S:N23*Z1. Please note the fact that the code p*t:pt does not result in , because like in mathematics "*" has precedence over ":". In first p is put next to t, and only then they are put over pt.

It is of course possible to put more than two signs next to each other in a group, as is demonstrated by N5:10*10*10 and Htp:t*p*t .

There can be several combinations of ":" and "*" within a single group, as is demonstrated by n:xt:x*t , having ":" twice and one "*". Groups can have up to 4 horizontal layers (i.e. allowing three times ":") in WinGlyph.

PLACING GROUPS WITHIN GROUPS

Though ":" and "*" are quite sufficient for constructing the most common and simple groups, one may be faced with a group like , where there is actually the group nested inside the group. Such nested subgroups can only be achieved using the brackets "(" and ")". Thus, should be encoded p*(t:Z4):pt. Like in mathematics, the group placed between the brackets has precedence over ":" and "*". The code p*t:Z4:pt without the brackets would have the wrong result .

The use of the brackets for subgroups seldom applies to texts in lines and will mostly be needed for encoding columned texts (see below).

THE END-OF-LINE MARKER "!"

A block of hieroglyphic text can be divided into separate lines (or columns) using the end-of-line marker "!", which serves as physical Hard Return. It has to be placed at the point where the line should end and a jump to the next line should follow. For instance,

was encoded

z:A1*Z1-p-Z7-wn:n-i-n:p*Z7-E15-x:D43-Z7-Y1:n-A1-r:n-f-!
sxt-t:Z4-A1-p*Z7:n-sxt-t:N23-H-mA-A-t-U32-N33:Z2-niwt-i-s-t-!
wn:n-N42:t-B1:f-U7-r:t-A2-B1-r:n-s-!

It is important to note that in this code the end-of-line marker "!" each time is preceded by a "-" (dash). The end-of-line marker should never directly follow a hieroglyphic sign code, but should always be separated from it by either a dash (thus forming "-!"), or a single or double space (see CODES FOR GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL USE).

When a hard return is used in the middle of a code line this will not at all affect the formatting of the hieroglyphic output. The example code could just as well have been entered like

z:A1*Z1-p-Z7-wn:n-i-n:p*Z7-E15-x:D43-
Z7-Y1:n-A1-r:n-f-!
sxt-t:Z4-A1-p*Z7:n-sxt-t:N23-H-mA-A-t-
U32-N33:Z2-niwt-i-s-t-!
wn:n-N42:t-B1:f-U7-r:t-A2-B1-r:n-s-!

The output would be the same. Only the end-of-line marker makes the hieroglyphic text jump to a new line.

Applying hard returns in one's code is very useful to keep the code lines from becoming too long and running out of the window.

THE END-OF-PAGE MARKER "!!"

WinGlyph supports the encoding, display and printing of multiple hieroglyphic pages within one code file. The end-of-page marker "!!" can be used to indicate a page break . Its use is much the same as with the end-of-line marker "!". The "!!"-code should be placed at the end of the last line of the page, at the point where the page should end and a new page should begin. A code like

z:A1*Z1-p-Z7-wn:n-i-n:p*Z7-E15-x:D43-
Z7-Y1:n-A1-r:n-f-!
sxt-t:Z4-A1-p*Z7:n-sxt-t:N23-H-mA-A-t-
U32-N33:Z2-niwt-i-s-t-!!
wn:n-N42:t-B1:f-U7-r:t-A2-B1-r:n-s-!

would result in being the last word on the page and starting on the next page. Please note the fact that the end-of-page marker is also preceded by a "-" (dash), giving the combination "-!!".

CARTOUCHES, ETC.

For royal name enclosures, the encoding system supports the use of cartouches, Serekhs, walled enclosures and Hwt-signs. In the current version, WinGlyph only supports cartouches and and Hwt-signs.

The royal name code should be placed between two special codes "<" and ">", the first one for starting and the second one for closing the cartouche shape. To these codes a special code should be added indicating the kind of royal name needed:

normal cartouche

< normal beginning > normal end

<1 normal beginning 2> normal end

<2 inversed beginning 1> inversed end

Examples:

<-i-mn:n-m-HAt:t-> (normal cartouche)

<1-i-mn:n-m-HAt:t-2> (normal cartouche)

<2-i-mn:n-m-HAt:t-1> (inversed cartouche)

Hwt-shape

<h1 Hwt-beginning type 1:

<h2 Hwt-beginning type 2:

<h3 Hwt-beginning type 3:

h1> Hwt-ending type 1:

h2> Hwt-ending type 2:

h3> Hwt-ending type 3:

Examples:

<h1-F35-h2> and <h1-F35-h3> (note the difference!)

<h2-F35-h1> and <h3-F35-h1> (note the difference!)

In addition, so-called nul-beginnings and endings (<0, <h0, 0> and h0>) are available for those cases where a royal name enclosure overruns the length of a line.

RED-COLORED TEXTS

Black is the default color for hieroglyphic text in WinGlyph, but there are of course instances where one also needs red colored hieroglyphs, for instance with Coffin Texts or New Kingdom funerary papyri. There are two special codes available to note a switch in color of the hieroglyphic text from black to red and vice versa.

A switch to the red color is indicated with "$r" and a switch (back) to black with "$b". The color code is entered in between the hieroglyphic codes as if it were a sign itself and is therefore always preceded and followed by either a "-" (dash) or " " (space). For instance,

$r-x:p-xpr:r-m-b-i-k-G6-n:T:r-nTr-$b-i-A1-G5-A40-m-
D40-D54-r-k-r-Dd-d-w-niwt

causes to appear in red and to appear in black.

SHADING

Shading is used to indicate that a text is damaged. This damage can have resulted in lacunae in the text (f.i. ) or damaged--but recognizable-- hieroglyphs (f.i. ). In code such damages can be entered in different ways.

If the damage concerns a single sign (not in a group) the shading can be noted by placing the code "#" right after the sign code: is encoded A#.

If only part of the sign is damaged one can attach to the "#"-code the numbers of the sign quadrants to be shaded. For shading each sign is subdivided into 4 quadrants, their numbers being ordered as follows:

If one wants only quadrant 1 to be shaded the code would be A#1 , only quadrant 2 would be A#2 , etcetera. Of course combinations of quadrant numbers are possible: A#12 , A#13 , A#123 , etcetera. Logically, A#1234 equals A# .

If the damage covers more than one sign or group the passage to be shaded should be set between the codes "#b" (shading beginning) and "#e" (shading end):

is encoded

ir:n-A1-n:A1-N36-aHa-#b-a:t-pr-t-w-#e-s-Ax-x-ti-i

Note the fact that the shading codes are entered in between the hieroglyphic codes as if they were signs themselves and are therefore always preceded and followed by either a "-" (dash) or " " (space).

In case hieroglyphs are completely illegible or lost (f.i. , or ) one can use quarter, half and full quadrant shading codes in their place. The code "/" gives a quarter shaded quadrant , "h/" gives a horizontal half shaded quadrant , "v/" gives a vertical half shaded quadrant and "//" gives a full quadrant . These codes are used in place of the lost signs: is encoded /*t:pt, is encoded b-h/:t-Y7 and is encoded b-a-H-//-mw.

One could use a sequence of "//"-codes to indicate a larger destroyed part. The code r:n-//-//-A1 gives , where one actually notes that 2 hieroglyphic signs are lost (twice a full shaded quadrant). This is quite different from r:n-#b-..-..-#e-A1 (see above) where one sees that signs were lost but actually no number is given. Consequently, r:n-h/:/*/-v/-v/-A1 shows that there are still visible traces of the signs lost (one horizontal sign with two small signs beneath followed by two vertical signs) giving much more information than with .

MIRRORING SIGNS

Sometimes signs need to be mirrored compared to the orientation they have in the sign list. This can be achieved by attaching the code "\" (backslash) to the sign. For instance, the code A1\ gives the sign A1 as its mirror image: . A good example is the use of the signs C12 and C2 in the royal name where C12 is needed in mirrored appearance (code: C12\) in order for the Amun figure to face the Ra figure. Hence, the correct code for the cartouche would be <-C12\-C2-N36:ms*s*s->.